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References, directive to the reader and introduction

Most of the mentioned references are not available yet. The View and thew Glossary are. We work on the other English versions.

Educational change is not necessarily a good adaptation, development or improvement. An analogue development popping up at different occasions may be a contextual different image of the same concept. L'histoire se ne répète pas. We aim to illustrate that with a monthly reflection, with a wink at every days worries on the page Stories. Changes intimidate the one and enjoy the other. R accent has an own idea about Moving Along. Change is difficult. Look on page R to R accent to find out where R’ got its name from.

Do you want in Dutch the core of this site? In de Shop you will find the booklet "Hoezo Competentie?" That describes in 16 pages A5 for students their rights and duties in competence based education. "Verwerven van competentie", with 20 pages A5 is an elaboration of it for a teachers' audience. And that is also available from the Shop. The View below describes our concept for vocational education and training (VET). On the page Glossary you will find in staccato the structure behind the stories.

Jos Geerligs, initiator of R accent

  • bachelor Dutch Agriculture (1967) in Roermond and master Plant Pathology (1974) in Wageningen
  • 3 years research: maïze, tobacco, Tagetes and lemon (1973-1975), at Fytopathology in Wageningen and Kutsaga RS in Harare, Zimbabwe
  • 13 years in 4 schools (1975 – 1986): general education in Amersfoort, secondary education in Kasama, Zambia and senior secondary vocational education in Roermond
  • 13 years inspection / knowledge policy (1986 – 1992 / 1992 – 1999), ministry of Agriculture Nature and Fisheries in The Hague
  • PhD Theory of Education (1999) in Enschede
  • 15 years educational research and advice (1999-2006 / 2006 - 2014), Stoas Onderzoek in Wageningen and R accent in Gouda.

View on the development of VET

We summarise the view as follows. Utilisation of learning in the workplace is a pillar under VET. However, effective utilisation is beyond reach. For decades has been tried to change this situation but no progress was made. The challenge is the provision of expert feedback in connection with the students’ adventure and perception of working in the workplace. Provision of expert feedback requires a new division of roles and a new approach. Senior teachers ought to take the role of expert coaches providing expert feedback; a task for 1:10 of the teachers. For a different approach in education new principles from philosophy and development psychology are combined as summarised with seven key questions (on the homepage). The experience is that these key questions enhance the acquisition of identity and ability in a balanced way. We notice that the key questions are a useful means to line up learning in the workplace with learning in school. This brings mindfulness in reach as the meta objective of VET. Mindfulness is a prerequisite for situation awareness and that on its turn is a prerequisite for decision making and thus for crafstmanship or competence.
What does this means for change in schools? Most interventions to develop VET focus on one or a few of the seven questions. That is why the interventions with regard to teachers’ or students’ learning are incomplete and can not meet the expectations. The concept with seven questions provides a meta-criterion for objectives, methods and evaluation of virtually all interventions for further development.

Introduction

Because of its potential many consider the learning in the workplace an essential part of VET (Bailey, Hughes & Moore, 2004; Billet, 1999). Indeed, enforced by national regulation a substantial part of the time in programmes is devoted to learning in the workplace. The utilisation of this time however appears to be problematic.

“The talks about practical work are mainly to and about the student; the student himself – his reflections – appear hardly subject of conversation” (Winters, 2008). Having a conversation about adventure in the workplace appears to be difficult. Research of career education provides a division of available time during talks: explanation (33%), questioning (26%), active listening (12%), enhancement of reflection (7%), reporting (6%), structuring (5%) and advice and others (6%) (Mittendorff, den Brok & Beijaard, 2010; p. 156). The attention of the teachers goes to the learning in school and not to reflection on learning in the workplace. A study of feedback with university students looked into effects of written (generic and deep) individual peer feedback and collective (specific and personal) expert feedback. The peer feedback contributed to the development of situation awareness and the expert feedback was more effective in making feasible and relevant steps forward (Gielen, 2007; p. 185-187).  Apart from a scaffold for effective next steps of learning, the expert feedback can provide a focus for the learning on the program.
It is advantageous for the school when employers provide the guidance of the learning in the workplace. That saves costs of school personnel providing the guidance, it avoids the problem mentioned above and at first sight it seems logic that the guidance of learning is kept close to the working. In practice however employers put their production / work processes in the first place to the cost of guidance of learning in the workplace (Bailey c.s., 2004; p. 200; Nieuwenhuis & van Woerkom, 2007). In addition to that the realisation of learning effects is problematic, even when the guidance on the work floor is structured (Blokhuis & Nijhof, 2006). The utilisation of learning in the workplace is possibly improved when the school takes it as her responsibility, because she is in the position to line up learning in the workplace with learning in school.
We tried expert feedback in several schools, among others in ROC Landstede. In demonstrations with students, teachers saw the students' ability to recall adventure in conversations and also the ability to express their perceptions and sometimes to formulate learning results and learning questions on basis of adventure. Not all teachers acquire easily the ability to provide appropriate guidance to the students. And that is not necessary either, because guidance of learning in the workplace demands a limited amount of program time. An analysis of this educational points at two bottlenecks: 1) the cognitive ability of students to reflect and 2) the didactic ability of some senior teachers to take the role of the expert coach for the provision of expert feedback.
The challenge for the school may be summarised as follows.Practical situations are unpredictable diverse and changeable. That is why practical work demands that crafsmen are ready to make weighed decisions. For decision making situation awareness and mindfulness are essential prerequisites. Theory is required, because what you see is almost always a recognition of things one knew already; this is the relation between mindfulness and knowledge. We mention here a string connected abilities. These connected abilities are also the basis for an entrepreneurial attitude and entrepreneurship, and for learning to learn and lifelong learning. In practical situations an expert coach can learn the student to observed more than he expected on beforehand. He can stimulate the students’ mindfulness by encouragement of reflection and curiosity. He can ask the student to do something new, he can encourage him to imitate and experiment. Mindfulness becomes a didactic meta objective for the learning in the workplace and the expert coache's guidance has to grant that.

The utilisation of working on the workplace is possibly the largest challenge for the development of VET. It sounds realistic and attainable, but there is a snake in the grass. Utilisation of learning in the workplace requires the lining up of theory and practice – we consider connection of theory and practice impossible. Lining up of theory and practice should lead to situations in which a student can recall practical experience for a theoretical analysis.
Below first the theoretical framework is described to position the challenge of VET. Based on that framework the criteria for intervention are formulated for a better utilisation of learning in the workplace. Finally a research design is made for the monitoring of interventions.

Theoretical framework

In the end, at depth, the acquisition of identity (Verhaeghe, 2012) and ability (Piaget, 1965) are processes by which someone accepts or rejects received signals. In this process the relation with others plays a major role; the quality of interaction matters. The signals can have a theoretical or a practical nature. With other words, the student may acquire identity and ability from the book / instruction and from the work / experience. Once the signals are sensed, the self decides about the adaptation and rejection of the signals. A continued process of adaptation and rejection lead by the self constructs somebodies identity and ability.

Seven reflective key questions

Reflective questions stimulate the learning process. For guidance of the acquisition of identity and ability, seven key questions have been identified (See: Figure 1).

Figure 1: Seven reflective key questions
for the acquisition of identity and ability

“Do you understand?” and “Can you?” questions are most asked in education and the other five most times not. This is in line with the observations in the research of Mittendorff e.a. (2010) en Winters (2008). “Do you understand?” questions are not specic for a case but generalisations - away form a concrete case. They are questions about theoty. This type of questions are also used in structured questionnaires of both education and educational research. This one sided questioning indicates cripple reflection. Why is this bias accepted?

Questioning "What occurred around you?" need a focus on a specific case and it is asking for an elaborate and unpredictable answer that might be very informative. It requires interviewing.  Questioning “Do you understand?” will give a yield with predictable answers that can be counted and the questions can be asked from a distance. At first sight the latter questioning yields better and is cheaper to organise. There is a deeper reason also for the choice of questioning. Procee (2006) brings up that the concept of reflection in educational literature commonly is based on the pragmatic school of Dewey – one may be aware or unaware of this. Pragmatism assigns little weight to higher thoughts and personal experience and poses: “Something is true when it provides solutions for practical problems.” The background of the pragmatic school explains why reflection in education has its focus on “Do you understand?” and “Can you?” questions.
Our point of departure is different; in practical situations most of us experience and admitt that concerns matter more than facts. Notably the concerns / stakes make practical situations unsecure and unpredictable. The characteristics of practice are diversity and chaangebility and that is opposite the characteristics of declarable and generic academic knowledge and skill. VET ought to line up theory and practice in the learning processes. On pragmatic grounds this is problematic. Due to the obligation of VET many authors underline a dual challenge for VET. Procee proposes an alternative for pragmatism and refers to a concept Immanuel Kant. The Kantian dualism is broader than the pragmatism. Kant puts understanding – Verstand – next to judgment – Urteilskraft.
Kant goes even deeper; understanding consists of ratio and feeling. Ratio stands for plain reason – reine Vernuft – (declarative knowledge, that what can be rationalised) and has a role next to feeling that stands for practical reason – praktische Vernunft – (procedural knowledge, that what has to be experienced).
Academic knowledge and skill, and practical knowledge and skill are forms of declarative knowledge. The “Do you understand?” and "Can you do it?" questions suit generic knowledge and generic skill abilities.
The “What occurred around you?” and “What happened to you?” questions apply to practical reason. The answers on the questions can only be understood in connection with a concrete practical situation. What did a customer want, what concerned the team? These relevant questions are often not asked, especially not in VET. Nevertheless they are important for doing the right thing and for concern and satisfaction in retrospect. Was the situation familiar to you, was it new, did it touch you, did you want it? These are questions to find out whether a task can be done with dedication or dismay and could be done in line with someone’s identity and ability.

Apart from declarative and procedural knowledge we have conceptual knowledge to link things, to make compositions. That brings us back to Kant and his – Urteilskraft – judgment. The reflective questions “What are the ideas?” “What was at stake?” and “What is your finding?” express different forms of decision making.
The “What are the ideas?” question is an expert’s question. He concludes what is possible in generic terms. At a higher level of aggregation he explores the scientific and technological options.
“What was at stake?” is the reflective question of a practitioner. He makes a choice in a concrete situation with the stakes of his boss, his customer, his colleagues in mind, he may take the positions of his competitors in mind and the bounds of regulations.
“What is your finding?” is the question of a judge. The judge weighs for his decision the conclusions and the choices, the valid reasoning and the relevant feeling.
All these reflections are forms of transfer, creating new relations leading to decisions. The expert coach putting these questions to a student, can create new relations together with the student and help the student to realise transfer.

VET’s challenge is to utilise contradictions as there are appearance next to reality, theory next to practice, knowledge next to acting, fact next to value. These dualities disable consequent acting, they oblige to judge. It is required to learn to handle dualities. Handling dualities is the basis for students to develop and shape talents and enhance affection and dedication for the occupation. A feasible approach for the acquisition of identity and ability, and for finding a path between the dualities of VET, has been described above with seven concrete operational questions. The next step is to fit this approach into an educational concept.

A proposal for an educational concept

The core of learning is perceived as a continued completion of the self and the brain as result of interaction. It is a process that starts before birth. Signals reach the brain and the self accepts or rejects the signal, and that process will change the self. The self reacts after the accommodation different in response to signals. This is expressed in identity and ability. Mimesis, following or aping are enforcing means for the utilisation of signals. The subjective self is not conscious of the construction process, but the objective self may influence it. Accommodation enables the development of several identities, for example the identity of the mother, the sportswoman, the representative and the image of several occupations. These basis processes are placed in the centre of Figure 2.

Signals exist in numerous forms. And the impact of signals is difficult to profess. Following a hero has more impact than forced copying or listening to someone because it is demanded. Signals can come from a family in harmony or in fight, or from a violent game or a nature movie, or from education or a commercial. The impact on adaptation or rejection by the subjective self, and consequently on accommodation of the self is not univocal. The self is just expected to ‘know’ the quality from incoming signals, whether the signals come from a hero or a looser. The quality of signals as perceived is expected to be closely related to the perceived quality of the relation between the self and the other.

The second layer of learning is the development of consciousness. Kegan (1994) recognises five attitudes of consciousness, where each attitude has a subjective and an objective phase. The five attitudes are: the impulsive, the instrumental, the interpersonal, the self-steering and the transforming attitude. A child that grows up and sensing with the filter of the first attitude is unconscious of its impulsiveness. As it grows older, the objective consciousness will increase and the child will become aware of its emotions and it will be able to reflect on it. This makes emotion a object of its rational acting.
The two phases will be repeated at each following attitude. Someone will leapfrog from attitude to attitude in the course of life. At an age of forty most people have reached the interpersonal attitude according to Kegan. Only a minority will reach the transformative attitude in their lifetime. This concept provides sight on the bounds of the possibilities of learning and therefore it is an important pedagogic insight.
It is likely that people hold excess to the attitudes they went through. Take for example in mind the blind anger of a parent when an own child is harmed. Within an attitude someone may build up enormous ability. Take here the instrumental attitude for the perfect control of specialist abilities of an Olympic sportsman or a watchmaker.

Figure2: Four layers of learning

The processes in the first two layers of learning stand more or less on their own and are little influenced. In the third layer the teacher may offer a program for example through mediation. It helps to understand the first two layers, as the effect of a night’s sleep. It is good to know that when it comes to learning, all sorts of things can matter. Think about the quality of the signals someone receives from the context, the quality of the senses catching them from the context, and the achieved attitude determining the sensibility and susceptibility of the brain and the self, as a cause for large differences in the learning capacities of people. The natural functions differ and in addition to that they may not function well. Malfunctioning may differ due to traumatic experience for example of children from war areas, due to inherited handicaps like a syndrome of Down, or due to damage to the senses after an accident.
There is proof that through mediation in the third layer the cognitive functioning can be improved and back warded consciousness can be stimulated. This is an important insight in the flexibility of the development of the brain and the self. The school may offer mediation as a basic exercise for training of cognitive ability. Or she offers mediation as a special training, after a diagnosis at the intake. Finally she can offer it when shortages appear during the course. The mindfulness of teachers and expert coaches may grant the timely identification of such needs.

When requirements in the first three layers are met, learning in the fourth layer may develop completely. The objectives are development of ability with respect to facts, concerns and judgments. In other words mastering theory and practice for balanced decision-making. Kant would say that a student ought to master plain reason and practical reason to judge. Or in words of Levinas, the acquisition of mindfulness with respect to the self and the other for development of relations. Emmanuel Levinas would explain this as follows: It is necessary to acquire the experience of enjoyment and egoism as a proof for the self of bodily independence. And in contradiction with this to acquire the experience of vulnerability and suffering as proof for the self of bodily dependence. Both are prerequisites for the self for being touched by the other. Through the feeling of being touched, one may acquire ethical acting.
These latter formulations are abstract and less accessible. However, they precisely point to the necessity to join ratio and feeling for the acquirement of identity and ability. And also for the development of consciousness of the self and of the other. Everyone experiences the contradiction in enjoyment another does not have. This contradictopn cannot be solved. So contradictions may be fully experienced but remain; stronger, they are the basis for relations. And sensibility for relations is the thing that matters, not only for the development of the self, but also for the social and occupational development.
It is not only for the sake of educational objectives and results that these characteristics are mentioned: the characteristics are also an absolute prerequisite for a valuable learning process. The computer will never succeed to take over this task of the teacher. Someone that aims to sense in practical situations the concerns of stakeholders, will for example need to know from own experience what enjoyment and suffering is, because this personal experience is his reference for the recognition of the enjoyment and suffering of the other. And in addition, he needs to learn to transfer this ability to other situations.
The realisation of the objectives above comes in reach with the use of the seven key questions (See: Figure 1). Realisation requires guidance of learning processes for the acquisition of declarative, procedural and conceptual knowledge. This can be organised is a natural way through the positioning of learning in the workplace and learning in school in repeated cycles of knowledge production. In these repeated cycles the students ought to be supported with effective supervision and peer and expert feedback. 

The four layers of learning summarise the processes for the acquisition of identity and ability. The psychological process of construction of the first layer lies deep in the individual. In that layer the other plays a role through the quality of the relationships. The second layer harbours maturation of consciousness with a subjective and objective phase for five attitudes. Targeted intervention for cognitive development through mediation is possible in the third layer. In the fourth layer nurture and education are situated for the effective transport of culture and craftsmanship. Learning in the workplace is a part of the outer layer; success in the outer layer depends from the quality in the three inner layers. A teacher and an expert coach intervene in the outer layer and a mindful teacher is sharp on the functioning of the inner layers.

Design of Interventions

From preparatory research, demonstrations and training with students and teachers we did appears that students enlarge their situation awareness. Returning on adventure in the workplace enables students to make perceptions explicit. In this activity the seven key questions for acquisition of identity and ability are relevant.
In reflections subsequent steps have to be run through. The first step is the reconstruction of the actual course of events; enabling the student to assemble the movie of the adventure (Schenk, 2011). The next step is a reconstruction of the perceptions, the feelings connected with the adventure. This step supports the self and asks for the feelings in retrospect. The adventure is transformed into the wording of a perception. The next step considers the required handling of the perception: is the adventure a learning result to be captured or does it a raise a learning question that demands attention? This is the last step towards the conscious organisation of signals and learning from experience itself (Siegers, 2002). Students are able to formulate learning results and learning questions when their learning in the workplace is supported by (peer and) expert feedback.

Teachers attending demonstration of the guidance of reflection become enthusiastic about the students’ performances. At the same time many teachers hesitate to provide the guidance. It requires specific skill to guide the reflection on adventure in the workplace and also to provide expert feedback for the formulation of learning results or learning questions. The learning results and the learning questions need to fit in the students’ capacity and educational programme.
However, it is not necessary that every teacher is able to guide reflection or is planned to do so. The time for reflection of working in the workplace is limited. The guided reflection come in place of the questioning and reporting actions of practical work. Out experience is, that this message is difficult to hear and follow up. The school culture is that teachers are equal, even when they are not. Our advice is to accept differentiation of tasks and interest senior teachers, less than 1:10 of the teaching staff, to take the role of expert coach. The expert is the teacher with knowledge of the full educational school programme and the occupational routines in the workplace. The coach is the teacher with empathy and ability to guide step by step the reconstruction of adventure. The expert coach makes sure that learning results and learning questions are written down in the portfolio of the student – to be utilised somewhere somehow in the programme.
However, the role of the expert coach is broader. The learning results and the learning questions students formulate may regard their personal, social and occupational development. Things that are objectives in the educational programme. The learning includes psychological cognitive development (See: Figure 2). For example the ability to analyse, summarise, plan, organise and cooperate. It comprehends: physic development, for example adequate seeing and hearing. And finally also the social economic situation of the student, so not exclusively the relations and balance at the work floor, but also those with family and friends – as far as these are relevant for development. The challenge of the school is developing the student and the mindful expert coach is in the position to monitor the whole field of possible bottle necks hindering the students’ development. Right the questioning of adventure in the workplace enables the expert coach to fetch the signals and canal those to others when they exceed his task, ability or assignment.

Design requirements for intervention are: A. The programmatic attention for the reflective preparedness and ability of students, to create sufficient chances for their continued cognitive development. And next to this as a prerequisite: B. the training of expert coaches guiding the utilisation of learning in the workplace through 1) the enhancement of situation awareness of students en 2) providing expert feedback for the students formulating learning results and learning questions. These criteria for design of interventions provide objectives for projects.

The objectives above are positioned in a theory of improvement. The theory of improvement explains how interventions influence and change the learning of teachers (theory of change) and consequently the learning od students (theory of instruction) (Wayne, Yoon, Zhu, Cronen & Garet, 2008, p. 472).
The theoretical framework above is the basis for the theory of improvement. The framework provides seven question and these are the concrete operational content of the theory of improvement. These seven questions need to be asked at the description of the nature of the intervention (left in Figure 3), during the realisation and monitoring of the changes and quality of the conduct ot the teacher in lessons (middle) and finally at the realisation and monitoring of the results of the students (right). The Final effect of interventions needs to be measured from increased performance of students (Desimione, 2009). The school supports every intervention over the complete trajectory (See: Figure 3).

The seven questions (See: Figure 1) are relevant for the expert coach, teacher and student. There are differences of content and differences in the working and learning place of teacher and student, and also in the attitude, the development of mental consciousness. In case of learning in the workplace the differences will also exist between teachers and between students. In all these cases reflection and reconstruction has to clarify what the real situation is. The leaning process though is in all cases the same. The key questions to reflect are the same. The types of knowledge that ought to be developed are the same. This means that the theory of change and the theory of instruction are the same. The learning of teachers and of students is guided in the same way. And the theory of improvement comprehending the two is the same as well. This outcome can be recognised from the repeated wording in the blocks of Figure 3.


Figure 3: Measurement of effects of interventions (aft

er a model of Desimone, 2009)

The content of the theory of improvement provides a concept for the design/choice of interventions/projects. With concern to content and place this design/choice is free. This is possible due to the point of departure is the unpredictable nature of working in the workplace. Variation of content en place is accepted as a common thing and this applies also to the theoretical framework, design of interventions and the research design. Through this point of departure the organisation of interventions, the guidance and monitoring get a meta character. In practical application this means that the key questions about reflection are relevant in each of the four phases and also that the key questions are used, guided and monitored in the interventions for teachers and for students.
The theory of improvement for the acquisition of identity and ability receive with this theoretical framework a dualistic basis and in that basis declarative, procedural and conceptual knowledge get equal positions. This means that guidance of all learning – the learning of teachers and students  - is directed to three learning processes in which the third learning processes relates the other two:

  • Instruction foe declarative learning
  • Reconstruction for procedural learning and
  • Transfer for decisions: concluding, choosing and judging.

Thisa approach provides possibilities to structure and control the dualities that characterise the learning processes of VET. The content is touched by seven key questions. The realisation rests with the expert coach doing two things through guidance of learning in the workplace: 1) enhancement of situation awareness and 2) providing expert feedback for the formulation of learning results and learning questions.
This work of the expert coach is unpredictable diverse and changeable, because practical situations ans also the learning of students are unpredictable diverse and changeable. The most important form of quality improvement under these conditions is professional development guided with supervision based on a dual concept. And for this the seven questions are the basis.

Effect measurement should focus on mindfulness (of expert coaches, teachers and students). The research question is the improved response of expert coaches, teachers and students to the seven key questions that participate in comparison with participants in control groups. The more multiform and the deeper the response on each of the key questions is, the larger is the mindfulness is the presumption.
For the monitoring of institutional development, effects are measured at regular for example annual intervals. Supervision sessions of duo’s, an expert coach with a student, a teacher with a student, or a team leader with a teacher are recorded on video. Preferably the same duo’s in a sequence. The video’s are analysed.
This approach can also be used in short courses. Then the intervals are short. The analysis is done by the participants themselves in a peer reflection context, overarched by expert feedback.

Discussion

This vies was developed through interaction with scientists and professionals in schools. Many teachers joined demonstration and training sessions. They supported the development of the sight on what works and what not, on what comes first and what should follow. Most recent Theo van Geffen en Marjo Lam provided feedback for the phrasing of this view. 

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